According to Yoruba mythology, the universe from the beginning was made up of only two elements. These elements were the sky above and the water beneath (Lynch & Roberts 2010). Oduduwa who was believed to be the servant of the Supreme Being (Olodumare) created the earth. According to the myth, Oduduwa was believed to have ventured down from heaven with a long chain carrying a Calabash filled with sand along with a five-toed fowl (Pemberton III 1997). He poured the sand in the Calabash on the water and as a result, the earth came into existence. Each step the fowl took produced new ground. A chameleon came down to determine if the land was dry and solid enough. The remaining water bodies in existence today are believed to be places not touched by the sand. However, besides the relevance of the Calabash in the creation of the earth, its spiritual significance to the Yoruba people is cosmic.

The calabash plays an important role in ritual practices and serves as a container for spiritual and magical substances (Rice 2017). During the Yemoja festival, the calabash is used to convey spiritual matters from the forest into the palace where further rituals are carried out by the King. The Calabash which is carried by the Yemoja priestess would contain a mixture of spiritual substances and water (Rice 2017). The consecrated contents of the calabash would revitalise the Oba (king) and re-establish his mandate to reign (Rice 2017). However, should the Calabash be filled with the feathers of a dead parrot, it could signify his death (Rice 2017).

During ‘Orisa’ arts and worship, prominent symbols are carved on Calabash (De Silva 2006). At the end of the ‘Sango’ festival in Ede, a woman would carry the Calabash as a percussion instrument (Beier 1959). Meanwhile, a virgin priestess called ‘Arugba’ of the ‘Olufon’ cult would carry the calabash to depict heaven and earth (Beier 1963). Epic imagery displaying the origins of ‘orisa’, and its related social practices are popular themes found in Yoruba land and it is not complete without showing the calabash (De Silva 2006). A female carrying a calabash on her head symbolises the connection between the ‘orisa’ devotee and the spiritual world (De Silva 2006) and when the woman kneels and holds a calabash, it signifies reverence to ‘Osun’ (Carroll 1967).

In an event where a king, for instance ‘Alaafin’, is rejected by his chiefs (the ‘Oyomesi’) for oppression, evil behaviour, or political intrigues, this would be communicated to him by the ‘Bashorun’ (Aborisade 2018). The ‘Bashorun’ (also known as the Prime Minister) would present an empty calabash or one filled with parrots’ eggs to the king with the declaration, – ‘the gods reject you; the earth rejects you; the people reject you’ (Afolayan 1998). In 1817, Afonja who was the ‘are-ona kakanfo’ (war General) declared Ilorin’s independence by sending an empty calabash to the ‘Alaafin’ (Falola 2018).

When a meeting is called to discuss pending issues affecting a community or to settle a disagreement between community members, the calabash is used to serve kola nuts which are then broken and shared amongst attendees before the commencement of the meeting, an indication that the meeting will bring about peace and unity amongst the people. Calabash is also used as a decoration in houses as its beautifully tattooed body adds beauty to a room (Figure 1). The calabash is an important tool used during various ceremonies and festivals such as the Argungu fishing festival in some Northern parts of Nigeria (Figure 4c).

In earlier days when plastic bowls had not been introduced, the calabash was used as a container to store ink, mix, and hold dyes (Williams 2008) to dye clothes (Bray 1969) popularly known as ‘Adire’ in the Yoruba land (Figure 4a). ‘Adire’ is inextricably linked to the economic and social life of the Yoruba people (Gausa & Abubakar 2015). The designs on the clothes depict cultural heritage, using a variety of codes and symbols thus creating a feeling of unity and patriotism for which the Yoruba culture stands for (Kashim 2013). In the olden days, ‘Adire’ was the Yorubas’ pride and was often worn when attending the most important social gatherings and ceremonies in Yoruba land such as the wedding ceremony where life-long relationships are established between two families giving their sons’ and daughters’ hands in marriage. Before the day of the ceremony, grandmothers, aunties, and female cousins prepare the bride for her ceremony by putting her through a beauty regimen. This involves scrubbing and massaging her skin with various beneficial ingredients mixed in a calabash. The traditional wedding day comes with lots of items from the groom’s family mostly carried in beautifully carved and painted calabash and in some cases, a bottle gourd (‘Akeregbe’) filled with fresh palm wine (Figure 3b).

‘Sekere’ is a musical instrument with ropes bearing beads and/or cowries woven on the outer part of a dried, carved, and painted bottle gourd (Figure 2). It is produced from matured fruits of bottle gourd and plays a crucial role in traditional and social ceremonies. At Yoruba traditional ceremonies, the beating of the ‘Sekere’ goes together with praise songs and spectacular dances (Waterman 1990). High calibre ceremonies in the southwestern region of Nigeria such as weddings and the coronation of a new king which involve feasting and rhythmic dancing to music are not complete without the use of the ‘Sekere’.

In addition to these, the Sekere is commonly used in traditional ceremonies in the Yoruba land which includes amongst others Odun Olojo, Osun festival, Olumo festival, and new yam festival (Figure 2). It serves as a rattle and can be beaten like a drum, thrown into the air, and caught still in the rhythm (Chinyere et al. 2009). To date, ‘Sekere’ remains a sensational musical instrument in the Yoruba land.

The term ‘Balafon’ is used in both French and English languages, and it refers to a class of West African resonator xylophones, where hollow gourds hang beneath each key, tuned to resonate at the same frequency (McPherson 2018). Griots (also known as Jeli) are musicians and orators which is a hereditary position that involves singing praises and genealogies at social and spiritual gatherings, such as rituals and festivals (McPherson 2018). These musicians specialise in playing the ‘Balafon’ which is an inherited role that has been passed down from one generation to the next amongst the Griots.

The ‘Balafon’ which originated from Mali is now used in different parts of the world because of the migration of the Mande people and the Griots globally. The Balafon is now found in countries such as Mali, Guinea, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Republic of Guinea, Sierra Leone (Jessup 1983), the Senufo of Côte d’Ivoire (Zemp & Soro 2010), the Lobi of Burkina Faso (Colnago 2007), and the Tusia of Burkina Faso (Strand 2009). The word ‘Balafon’ is derived from the Manding words bála fɔ́ or ‘xylophone talk’ (Zemp & Soro 2010). Soso Bala, a ‘Balafon’ (frame-xylophone), is a remarkable example of a musical instrument (Figure 5) that has been preserved over a long period in the town of Niagassola in modern Guinea (Blench 2013). This artefact is without doubt the most fascinating and best indication of the importance of gourds in Africa and its link to African existence and heritage.

There are different types of ‘Balafon’ in West Africa according to construction and the geographical origins of the musician and the builder (Yip 2020). Amongst the Bobo and Bamana tribes, a single-row pentatonic ‘Balafon’ is amongst the most important musical instruments used in rituals and daily activities (Yip 2020). McPherson (2018) described the production process of the Sambla ‘Balafon’ as follows — the traditional Sambla ‘Balafon’ has 23 keys and are carved from the wood of the Pterocarpus erinaceus tree known in Seenku as bɛ̏nɛ̏.

According to the traditional production process, only dead wood trees are used in the manufacture of the Sambla ‘Balafon’. The wood is subsequently carved into keys, smoked to dry until ‘it becomes hard like metal and then the keys are tied to a wooden frame with string. Traditionally, the ‘Balafon’ is assembled using the thin, soft skin of the royal antelope to build the frame and attach the keys to the body of the resonator (the dried, half gourd). As a result of habitat loss and hunting, it is now a challenge to obtain this leather, and goatskin is now used as a replacement for the frame construction. A small hole is made into each resonator gourd, which is covered by a thin membrane that is traditionally made from spider egg sacs but now has been replaced by more durable plastic or paper (McPherson 2018).

The species of gourd used by the Sambla and the neighbouring Tusia differs from the gourds used on the more universal Jula ‘Balafon’, and they are cultivated specifically for this purpose (Strand 2009). The gourds used are more oblong and coated in clay which gives them a reddish appearance, with the application of this clay being kept a secretive process, which is only known to the initiator (McPherson 2018). The Keita brand of ‘Balafon’ usually consists of 20 wooden slats sourced from rosewood and different sizes of natural calabashes used as resonators (Yip 2020). The calabashes are dried and emptied after which one to three small holes of a centimetre in diameter is cut into the shell. The holes are then covered by fine membranes to produce a buzzing effect (Yip 2020).

The Mande ‘Balafon’ is a heptatonic traditional xylophone, traceable to the Soso Bala which is believed to date back to the establishment of the Mande Empire of Mali in the 13th century (Williams 2006). The Sosso Bala is preserved in Guinea and is regarded as a national treasure and symbol of unity amongst the Mande people. The Dökala Kouyatés who are the indigenous people in the area from which the Sosso Bala originated have chosen to remain in the Mande heartland area which is located near the border of the present-day countries of Guinea and Mali. In this area, they have preserved the Sosso Bala, the instrument from which all Mande ‘Balafon’ originated.

To preserve the Mande musical culture, a biannual international festival is observed with the help of the Guinea government to celebrate the importance of the Sosso Bala which has been recognised by The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a ‘masterpiece of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity’. The ‘Balafon’ originally belonged to Soumaoro Kanté, the oppressive, sorcerer-king of the Susu people, and the Bala was saturated with supernatural powers as it was created and given to Soumaoro Kanté by Jinns or the supernatural spirit (Williams 2006).

According to Conrad and Kondé (2004), Soumaoro had to bargain with the king of the Jinns, Jinna Maghan, to gain the Sosso Bala, as the instrument belonged to all the Jinns. According to Mande oral history, Soumaoro used the supernatural powers of the Sosso Bala for personal benefit as he consulted the instrument as an oracle to reveal future conditions that would support his battles (Williams 2006). Thus, Soumaoro Kanté played the instrument to gain insights into his future and to glorify his past achievements. The Sosso Bala was a reservoir of spiritual power for Soumaoro and a motivation for his worldly achievements. Thus, the Sosso Bala symbolises and embodies Soumaoro’s power. Sunjata defeated Soumaoro and took the Sosso Bala as a war trophy after which he burned Soumaoro’s palace and all his other possessions. The Soso Bala is thus the main historical object and sole symbol of Soumaoro’s defeat by Sunjata and his united army of different Mande clans, and is therefore regarded as a symbol of the unity and freedom by the present-day Mande people.

The component and shape of the Bolon are described by Sylla (2017). The Bolons are made from a ubiquitous gourd which is used as a component in a lot of West African traditional musical instruments (Sylla 2017). It can be made from a complete large gourd, or two smaller gourds cut and sewn or glued together. The Bolon is a traditional musical instrument of Mande origin and consists of half a calabash which is used as a sound box and a wooden pole that forms the neck (Camara, O’Toole & Baker 2013). It has three or four strings and a neck that is curved like the bow (Conrad 2010; Stone 2010) of a hunter or warrior.

The Bolon seems to be the oldest style amongst all the Mande harps (Conrad 2010), with a deeper tone than the hunters’ harp (Conrad & Konde 2004). The shape of the neck is a ‘reflection of the hunters’ bow’ (Figure 6) and adds to the Bolons magical qualities (Sylla 2017). The Bolon was traditionally played to incite soldiers to battle, commend them after victory (Conrad 2010) and praise them as warriors (Conrad & Konde 2004). Thus, it is an instrument of war. People often mistake a Bolon for a Kora. The Bolon has two or three strings and produces a deeper sound, which was used by the armies to set the cadence whilst the Kora is used for relaxation purposes (Camara et al. 2013).

The Kora (Figure 6) is an exceptional West African traditional musical instrument made up of a variety of materials which include animal hide, string, metals wood, and the most important which is dried, half gourd. The kora is the youngest of three Jeli musical instruments, the others being the Ngoni (a small lute with 5–8 strings) and the balafon (xylophone with 18 keys) (Durán 2008). Kora belongs to a family of calabash harps which are found in the West African savannah and are of ancient Mandé origin (Durán 2008). It has 21 strings (Camara et al. 2013; Hale 1994; Nettl et al. 2015; Stone 2010) and combines the features of both the lute (with a soundbox and neck) and the harp (Nettl et al. 2015), hence often described as a harp-lute (Durán 2008). The wide bridge that stands upright on the sound table, lifting the strings out in two nearly parallel rows on the Kora is popularly referred to as the ‘bellybutton’ and is what makes the Kora a distinctive instrument (Durán 2008). Cowhide is stretched over the gourd, whilst strings come off the neck in two parallel rows which are perpendicular to the face of the soundbox (Nettl et al. 2015).

The West African Griot lutes and xylophones are instruments used since ancient times and are so common across West Africa in different cultures and with a variety of names, all the way from northern Nigeria to Mauritania (Durán 2008). Such musical instruments with both straight and curved necks are found all over the sub-Saharan region (Nettl et al. 2015). The kora is the most popular and developed of the calabash harp family with many more strings than the other variants (Durán 2008).