The popularity of traditional herbal medicine has grown, especially in African cultures, because of its compatibility with local beliefs and minimal adverse effects (Ralapanawe et al. 2023). Knowledge of herbal medicine is passed down orally through generations and sustained through observations, spiritual encounters, and narratives (Mokgobi 2014). Globally, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicines for basic healthcare needs, with therapeutic plants extensively used in developing countries like Cameroon, Uganda, and Nigeria (Agize, Demissew & Asfaw 2013; Jiofack et al. 2010; Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. 2007; WHO 2003).

Herbal medicines encompass various plant materials for therapeutic purposes, utilised in human and occasionally animal health (Phua et al. 2009; WHO 2003). Women’s well-being is affected by infertility, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where over 30% of women are infertile according to the World Health Organization (WHO) data (Chimbatata & Malimba 2016). Despite the availability of Western medications, indigenous healing practices (IHPs) are widely used to manage infertility, with many women in Nigeria preferring traditional and spiritual healers over Western medicine (Sulyman et al. 2016).

Age-appropriate women have access to ongoing information about secure new Western treatments for infertility. However, they continue to use native practices. Many women in South Africa seek the advice of Indigenous Health Care Practitioners (IHCPs) for various issues related to the female reproductive system, including infertility (Joseph 2018). Some women use dual treatment and believe indigenous practitioners helped them. Traditional healers utilise 12 plant species for treating female reproductive issues: Bidens pilosa, Brachylaena discolour, Capsicum chinese, Chamaesyce prostrata, Cyperus papyrus, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Euphorbia ingens, Geigeria aspera var. aspera, Heteropyxis transvaalensis, Kleinia longiflora, Mundulea sericea, Pelargonium spp. Black South Africans’ culture heavily emphasises female fertility as it ensures the tribe’s survival and growth (Veale et al. 2014). James et al. (2018) reported women regaining fertility in Sierra Leone using IHCPs. These IHCPs have been utilised for treating infertility (Begashaw et al. 2017). A qualitative study in Sri Lanka indicated the use of herbs, food, and rituals since ancient times to manage infertility causes in women (Srishan et al. 2020). In Karnataka, India, cultural approaches to infertility therapy are prevalent, with women turning to herbal remedies and faith healing (Udgiri & Patil 2019). Ofosu-Budu and Hänninen (2021) highlighted unhealthy sexual behaviour and unintended pregnancies resulting in unlawful abortions, putting women at infertility risk. Infertile women in Ghana contact indigenous practitioners after hospitals cite unexplained infertility causes (Ofosu-Budu & Hänninen 2021). Indigenous practitioners remain crucial in disease prevention in Zimbabwe because of limited access to Western healthcare (Odmell, Mamimine & Kudakwashe 2018). Mdhluli (2019) posited that infertility may stem from demonic forces, prompting women to seek spiritual healers for prayers and holy water preparations to cast out curses leading to infertility.

Traditional medical practices have been integral to basic healthcare worldwide for millennia. Ancient civilisations like the Maya, Inca, and Aztecs in Mexico, as well as China’s Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) system, date back around 5000 years. Mexican Traditional Medicine (MTM) integrates ancient healing practices from these civilisations with African and Spanish-Catholic influences, emphasising harmony between physical, emotional, and mental health (Bogavac et al. 2017). Nahua women in northern Veracruz, Mexico, utilised approximately 80 plant species medicinally, with married women, particularly those with children, possessing extensive knowledge. Twenty-six plant species were used for reproductive health issues, including conception, menstruation, pregnancy, and the postpartum period. For instance, Priva lappulacea (L.) Pers. was used to prevent miscarriages, while a tea made from Hamelia patens Jacq. and Bombax ellipticum Kunth was used for sterilisation (Cabada et al. 2023; Castillo-Juárez 2009; Maduro 1983).

Korean Herbal Medicine (KHM) employs decoctions to treat infertility, often administered before or after procedures like in vitro fertilisation (IVF) or intrauterine insemination (IUI). Patients may receive KHM alongside ovulation-inducing drugs like clomiphene citrate, without additional traditional Korean medical practices such as acupuncture or cupping (Nandi et al. 2016). Examples of KHM remedies include Chokyungsoyo-san, Chokyungonshin-tang, and Guichulleekyung-tang. Moreover, Korean traditional medicine is used to address infertility concerns. Herbal decoctions, such as Chokyungsoyo-san, Chokyungonshin-tang, and Guichulleekyung-tang, are administered to patients before or after assisted reproductive procedures like IVF or IUI (Nandi et al. 2016). In some cases, these herbal remedies are combined with ovulation-inducing drugs like clomiphene citrate to enhance fertility outcomes.

In addition to Mexican and Korean traditional medicines, other cultures also rely on herbal remedies for reproductive health. For instance, Nahua women in northern Veracruz, Mexico use a variety of plants to address conditions related to conception, menstruation, pregnancy, and postpartum recovery (Cabada et al. 2023; Castillo-Juárez 2009). These traditional practices reflect a holistic approach to healthcare, emphasising the interconnectedness of physical, emotional, and mental well-being.

The utilisation of plant species holds significant promise for achieving equity in healthcare delivery and fostering national development through bioprospecting and the advancement of indigenous knowledge. The genus Syzygium, a member of the Myrtaceae family comprising 1200–1800 species, is extensively employed in traditional medical practices across Asia and globally, with therapeutic functions that play a vital role in healthcare systems worldwide (Akkol et al. 2021; Sánchez-Fernández et al. 2021). Particularly, Syzygium ssp. exhibits a wide geographic distribution from Africa to the Pacific, with diverse species utilised for treating various ailments with culturally acceptable and compatible properties, minimising negative side effects (Bari, Nassar & Aly 2021; Hoque et al. 2021). Notably, Syzygium cordatum Hochst ex C Krauss. leaf, root, and bark have shown efficacy in treating a range of conditions including stomach aches, diabetes, and venereal diseases (Dharani 2016).

Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is rich in beneficial compounds such as vitamin C, polyphenols, and phytoestrogens like genistein and daidzein, making it adaptable and effective in treating various health issues (Battineni, Boggula & Bakshi 2017). Similarly, extracts from Matricaria chamomilla, commonly known as chamomile, have demonstrated efficacy in enhancing reproductive health by modulating hormone levels and improving follicular development (Shoorei et al. 2018). Vitex agnus-castus, a herb from the Verbenaceae family, is utilised for treating menstrual issues and acne, with its isoflavones and flavonoids affecting hormone release and increasing endometrial blood flow (Amégbor et al. 2012; Goodarzi & Akbari 2016).

Ashwagandha, also known as Indian ginseng, offers benefits for women facing fertility challenges, with its oestrogenic properties and potential to restore hormonal balance (Nasimi et al. 2018). Red clover (Trifolium spp.) and Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) contain phytoestrogenic chemicals that mimic hormone synthesis, providing relief from menopausal symptoms and addressing oestrogen-dependent disorders (Hidalgo et al. 2005; Ztürk et al. 2018). Moreover, plant extracts from Cinnamomum species, including cinnamon, offer safer alternatives to conventional treatments for conditions like endometriosis, with their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Ji et al. 2011). Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) extracts have demonstrated efficacy in reducing uterine contractions and alleviating dysmenorrhoea, showcasing their potential to improve reproductive health (Sautour et al. 2004). Additionally, Nigella sativa extracts have shown promise in treating conditions like polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) through their phytoestrogenic and flavonoid components, influencing hormonal pathways (Khani et al. 2021).

Incorporating these plant-based remedies into healthcare systems could provide holistic approaches to addressing reproductive health issues, leveraging the rich therapeutic potential of plants and indigenous knowledge for improved health outcomes. Bioprospecting and indigenous knowledge can promote equity in healthcare delivery and national development. Plant species will aid in their preservation and may lead to the discovery of beneficial substances useful in the treatment of infertility (See Table 1 and Table 2). The following plant has been found relevant. The genus Syzygium belongs to the family Myrtaceae. There are 1200–1800 species. These plants are a genus employed in the traditional medical practices of Asian nations, particularly in China, India, Bangladesh, and various regions across the globe. These plants have therapeutic or curative functions which have helped them attain a commanding role in health systems all over the world (Akkol et al. 2021; Sánchez-Fernández et al. 2021). Syzygium spp. has a wide geographic range that stretches from Africa and Madagascar to Asia and the Pacific (Perrie et al. 2013), with the highest levels of diversity occurring from Malaysia to Australia, where many species are poorly understood, and countless others have not been taxonomically depicted. These species are common elements in the upper and middle strata of eastern Australian rainforests (Hyland 1983). Syzygium spp. are useful for treating illnesses and may be used as ingredients to preserve health and conditions. These plants are culturally acceptable, compatible, and adapted to the human body with fewer negative side effects. Many nations across the globe rely on these plants as a major form of healthcare (Bari et al. 2021; Hoque et al. 2021). According to Dharani (2016), Syzygium cordatum Hochst ex C Krauss. leaf, root, and bark were found effective in curing stomachaches, abdominal pains, indigestion, diarrhoea, diabetes, venereal diseases, and infirmity. Pomegranate is high in vitamin C, water, and polyphenols such as anthocyanins, punicalagins, ellagic acids, and gallic acids.

A study conducted on Nahua women in Northern Veracruz, Mexico found that around 80 different medicinal plant species were used, with married women and mothers being particularly knowledgeable about most of these plants. Twenty-six of the plant species were used to treat conditions relating to reproductive health, including conception, menstruation, pregnancy, and the postpartum period. A herb called Priva lappulacea (L.) Pers. was utilised to stop miscarriages (Cabada et al. 2023; Castillo-Juárez 2009; Maduro 1983). To completely sterilise females, a tea made from Hamelia patens Jacq. [syn. Hamelia erecta] and Bombax ellipticum Kunth (Malvaceae) was consumed. A tea made from a different plant, Cydista potosina, was used for the same reason, and Hybanthus attenuatus (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Schult.) Schulze-Menz (Malpighiales) was said to make conception easier. The Natau women employed Tillandsia recurvata (Bromeliaceae), H. patens, Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen (Sapotaceae), Solanum nudum, and Persea americana as remedies for heavy menstruation (Cabada et al. 2023; Castillo-Juárez 2009; Maduro 1983).

It is worth noting that several of the therapeutic herbs used by women were recorded in pre-Columbian codices, indicating that they have been utilised in Mexico for more than 500 years. It was more widespread across a significant number of regions (Castillo-Juárez 2009). However, most of these plants lack any evidence supporting their usage during pregnancy in terms of safety or efficacy. Most of these herbs lack safety or effectiveness evidence for consumption through pregnancy or their delivery, with the exemption of ginger root and chrysanthemum. Besides, it was discovered in findings by Uganda and Yineger et al. (2007) in Ethiopia that many of the wild habitats are influenced by anthropogenic impacts and, as a result, shrink in size because of ever-increasing population pressure, resulting in the extinction of many medicinal species.