Abstract
Background: Pseudarthria hookeri Wight & Arn. is a well-known and widely used medicinal plant in tropical Africa.
Aim: The current study was aimed at documenting the ethnomedicinal uses, and botanical, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of P. hookeri.
Setting: This review provides an overview of the traditional and medicinal uses of P. hookeri, as well as its botanical, chemical and pharmacological properties.
Method: The literature search on existing information on ethnomedicinal uses, botanical, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of P. hookeri was conducted using online databases such as PubMed®, Web of Science, SciELO, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect®, SpringerLink® and Scopus® and also pre-electronic literature obtained from the university library.
Results: Pseudarthria hookeri is used as aphrodisiac and ethnoveterinary medicine, and as traditional medicine for female reproductive problems, malaria, gastro-intestinal problems, respiratory infections, liver and skin problems. Chemical compounds identified from P. hookeri include flavonoids, acetate, anthraquinones, coumaronochromones, ether, oligothiophene, phenolic acid, alkaloids, catechic tannins, polyphenols, polyterpenes, quinones, saponosides and sterols. Pseudarthria hookeri crude extracts and some chemical compounds isolated from the species demonstrated anti-anaemic, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, antiproliferative, antischistosomal, oestrogenic and larvicidal activities.
Conclusion: This review highlights the need for detailed ethnopharmacological assessments of P. hookeri focussing on its phytochemical, biological and toxicological properties, in vivo and clinical studies.
Contribution: Pseudarthria hookeri is an important medicinal plant and has potential as a source of health and pharmaceutical products.
Keywords: Fabaceae; materia medica; Pseudarthria hookeri; traditional medicine; tropical Africa.
Introduction
Many cultures in tropical Africa use both vascular and non-vascular plants as sources of traditional medicines. For example, research by Van Wyk, Oudshoorn and Gericke (2013) revealed that the rich cultural diversity in South Africa is reflected in the formal and informal traditional pharmacopoeia practised in different parts of that country. Similarly, literature has shown that medicinal plants from ancient times to the present day have been incorporated into the traditional materia medica in the African traditional medicine (Chaitanya et al. 2021; Che et al. 2024), Ayurveda (Anand et al. 2022; Kaushik et al. 2023; Kumar, Dobos & Rampp 2016), Medieval Islamic medicine (Irannejad 2023; Saad 2024; Schulz 2023), and American (Alonso-Castro et al. 2015; Lucía et al. 2021; Mamedov, Mehdiyeva & Craker 2015), European (Knoess & Wiesner 2019; Leonti & Verpoorte 2017; Lobbens et al. 2017) and Chinese (Gao et al. 2019; Shan et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022) traditional medicine systems. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined traditional medicine as:
[T]he sum total of the knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health, as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illnesses. (WHO 2019)
Therefore, the medicinal uses of plants in any given culture or society are based on socio-culturally specific indigenous or traditional knowledge about the plant species. Hence, the need to document such knowledge, principles, healthcare practices and products, particularly in developing countries where valuable medicinal plants are threatened with extinction or severe genetic loss while detailed indigenous or traditional knowledge about the species is lacking (Hedberg & Staugård 1989; Kaur, Kaur & Saggoo 2022; Mir et al. 2021).
Medicinal plants such as Pseudarthria hookeri Wight and Arn (Figure 1) as well as their bioactive compounds are becoming increasingly popular all over the world as natural alternatives to synthetic chemicals (Dharani & Yenesew 2019; Jamshidi-Kia, Lorigooini & Amini-Khoei 2018; Van Wyk & Wink 2012). This is not surprising as medicinal plants and plant-derived medicines have always played an important role within traditional primary healthcare systems in several countries. Moreover, P. hookeri is listed in the Traditional Herbal Pharmacopoeia of South Africa (Arnold et al. 2002), Uganda (Lye et al. 2008) and Zimbabwe (Gelfand et al. 1985). The species has also other medicinal applications or traditional uses. For example, in Zimbabwe, a ring of P. hookeri branches is placed round a sleeping person to catch bedbugs (Cimex lectularius Linnaeus) and the next morning the branches with the bedbugs are disposed of (Wild, Mavi & Biegel 1972). In Benin, P. hookeri is collected from the wild and used as fodder for livestock (Ouachinou et al. 2018). Leaves and roots of P. hookeri are sold as sources of traditional medicines in informal herbal medicine markets, stalls of herbalists and traditional healers in Ivory Coast (Bolou et al. 2022). It is therefore within this context that the current review was undertaken to evaluate the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of P. hookeri.
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FIGURE 1: Pseudarthria hookeri: (a) Showing plant habit and (b) A branch with leaves and flowers. |
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Methods
The literature search for botanical characteristics, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of P. hookeri was conducted from November 2023 to March 2024 using electronic search for peer-reviewed scientific publications, published books and book chapters. Online search databases used included Web of Science (https://www.webofknowledge.com), Scopus® (http://www.scopus.com/), SpringerLink® (https://link.springer.com/), Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com/), SciELO (https://search.scielo.org/), PubMed® (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) and ScienceDirect® (https://www.sciencedirect.com/search).
Pre-electronic sources which included books, book chapters, journal articles, dissertations and theses were obtained from the university library. The keywords used in the search included ‘Pseudarthria hookeri’, the synonyms of the species ‘P. hookeri Wight & Arn’. and English common names ‘bug-catcher’, ‘pink velvet bean’ and ‘velvet bean’. Additional search was also conducted using keywords such as ‘biological activities of Pseudarthria hookeri’, ‘pharmacological properties of Pseudarthria hookeri’, ‘ethnobotany of Pseudarthria hookeri’, ‘medicinal uses of Pseudarthria hookeri’, ‘phytochemistry of Pseudarthria hookeri’ and ‘traditional uses of Pseudarthria hookeri’. Literature sources included in this review are those that assessed the ethnobotany, taxonomy, medicinal uses, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of P. hookeri (Figure 2). Literature sources excluded from this review are those articles that are partially accessed, that is, accessed as abstracts only, and also published or unpublished ethnopharmacological surveys lacking information on botany, taxonomy, medicinal uses, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of P. hookeri.
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FIGURE 2: Flow diagram showing identification and screening of articles used in this review. |
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Ethical considerations
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects. No ethical clearance is required as this research used secondary data and literature reviews or published data.
Review findings
Taxonomy and morphological description of Pseudarthria hookeri
Pseudarthria hookeri Wight & Arn. is a member of the Fabaceae, Leguminosae or legume, bean or pea family. The genus Pseudarthria Wight & Arn. consists of perennial, erect to suberect, woody herbs, shrubs or subshrubs arising from a thick rhizomatous and woody rootstock (Leistner 2000). The genus has been recorded in Asia, tropical Africa, Réunion island, Mauritius and Madagascar with about six species (Leistner 2000; Schrire 1988; Verdcourt 1971, 2000; Zhang, Yi1 & Pan 2018). The genus name ‘Pseudarthria’ is derived from two Greek words ‘pseudes’ which means ‘false’ and ‘arthria’ which means ‘joint’, in reference to the imperfectly segmented fruits (Manning 2009). The species name ‘hookeri’ is in honour of Sir William Jackson Hooker (1785–1865), an English botanist and botanical illustrator who was the first director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew in the United Kingdom (Schmidt, Lotter & McCleland 2017). The synonyms associated with the botanical name P. hookeri Wight & Arn. include Anarthrosyne densiflora Klotzsch, Anarthrosyne robusta E. Mey., Desmodium kerstenii O. Hoffm., D. robustum E. Mey., Pseudarthria alba A. Chev., P. densiflora (Klotzsch.) B. D. Jacks and P. robusta (E. Mey.) Schltr. (Schrire 1988; Verdcourt 1971, 2000; Zhang et al. 2018). Accepted infraspecific taxa within P. hookeri are P. hookeri var. argyrophylla Verdc. and P. hookeri var. hookeri (Schrire 1988; Verdcourt 1971, 2000). The English common names of P. hookeri include ‘bug-catcher’, ‘pink velvet bean’ and ‘velvet bean’ (Gumede 2021; Manning 2009, 2012).
Pseudarthria hookeri is an erect, slender or arching deciduous shrub growing from a thick rhizome, with short-lived, erect-ascending velvety, angular and hairy stems, which branch from about halfway up, with grooved or strongly ribbed branches, growing up to 3 m in height (Manning 2012). The leaves of P. hookeri are alternate, petiolate, trifoliolate, terminal leaflet the largest, widely ovate to obovate elliptic, tips tapering, margins finely toothed, rough and green above and pale and velvety beneath. The curved, velvety hairs on leaves and stems act like velcro, sticking to other surfaces (Manning 2012). The flowers occur in copious terminal panicles or branched racemes, bright pink in colour, and calyx is velvety-brown or mauve in colour (Figure 1). The pods are oblong in shape, woody, straight, jointed but not breaking into segments, brown in colour, finely hairy, slightly constricted between the seeds. Pseudarthria hookeri has been recorded in Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Siera Leone, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Burrows & Willis 2005; Burrows et al. 2018; Figueiredo & Smith 2008; Fischer et al. 2010; Germishuizen & Meyer 2003; Gosline et al. 2023; Loffler & Loffler 2005; Schrire 1988) (Figure 3). The species has been recorded in open woodland, savanna, often in rocky places, scrub, bushveld, upland and lowland grassland, bushed and wooded grassland on sandy soils at an altitude ranging from sea level to 2000 m above sea level (Burrows & Willis 2005; Loffler & Loffler 2005; Manning 2012; Schrire 1988; Wild et al. 1972). Ecological assessments, however, showed that P. hookeri is also a common weed or ruderal, particularly in old cultivation, abandoned agricultural fields, forest margins, disturbed areas, along rivers and streambanks, swampy areas and vleis (Manning 2012; Schrire 1988; Wild et al. 1972). In the field, P. hookeri is easily confused with Flemingia grahamiana Wight & Arn. (family Fabaceae), but F. grahamiana lacks the prominent striated stems and short stalk of the terminal leaflet (Schmidt et al. 2017).
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FIGURE 3: Distribution of Pseudarthria hookeri in tropical Africa. |
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Medicinal uses of Pseudarthria hookeri
Pseudarthria hookeri is used as a source of traditional medicines in Burundi, Cameroon, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe, representing 29.4% of the countries where the species is indigenous (Table 1). Traditional medicines prepared from the fruits, leaves, roots and stems of P. hookeri are used to treat and/or manage 35 human and animal diseases and ailments (Table 1). The main diseases and ailments treated by P. hookeri extracts include reproductive problems, malaria, gastro-intestinal problems, respiratory infections, liver and skin problems (Table 1). In Zimbabwe, the root decoctions of P. hookeri are taken orally mixed with Arachis hypogea L. (family Fabaceae) as remedy for diarrhoea (Gelfand et al. 1985). Similarly, in Uganda, the leaf decoctions of P. hookeri are taken orally mixed with Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth (family Fabaceae) as remedy for diarrhoea (Namukobe et al. 2011). Similar observations have been made by Van Vuuren, Motlhatlego and Netshia (2022) who argued that combining of medicinal plants is common in the African herbal pharmacopoeia but very little research has been conducted aimed at scientifically validating the different types of herbal medicine combinations being used in the continent.
| TABLE 1: Ethnomedicinal uses of Pseudarthria hookeri. |
Phytochemical composition and pharmacological properties of Pseudarthria hookeri
Leaves and other parts of P. hookeri are characterised by several classes of flavonoids such as flavanones, flavones and isoflavones (Table 2). Some of the chemical compounds isolated from P. hookeri whole plants include acetate, anthraquinone, coumaronochromones, ether, oligothiophene and phenolic acid (Dzoyem et al. 2018; Tchamgoue et al. 2016). In addition to flavonoids, Yaya et al. (2023) isolated alkaloids, including catechic tannins, polyphenols, polyterpenes, quinones, saponosides and sterols from P. hookeri leaves. Pseudarthria hookeri crude extracts and some flavonoids isolated from the species demonstrated pharmacological activities such as anti-anaemic, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, antiproliferative, antischistosomal, oestrogenic and larvicidal properties.
| TABLE 2: Phytochemical composition of Pseudarthria hookeri. |
Anti-anaemic activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Yaya et al. (2023) evaluated the anti-anaemic activities of aqueous extract of P. hookeri leaves against phenylhydrazine-induced anaemic rats at doses of 50.0 mg/kg bw, 200.0 mg/kg bw, 1000.0 mg/kg bw and 2000 mg/kg bw with ranferon® as a positive control. The extract exhibited activities by causing increase in haemoglobin, red blood cell and haematocrit levels, and the effects were similar to those exhibited by the positive control, ranferon®, a pharmaceutical drug used for the treatment of anaemia (Yaya et al. 2023).
Antibacterial activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Asiimwe (2015) evaluated the antibacterial activities of ethanol extract of P. hookeri leaves against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (ATCC 49619) using agar diffusion assay with ciprofloxacin as a positive control. The extract exhibited activities against the tested pathogens with zone of inhibition of 12.0 mm (Asiimwe 2015). Similarly, Dzoyem et al. (2018) evaluated the antibacterial activities of the flavonoids pseudarflavone A, 6,7-(2″,2″-dimethylchromano) flavanone, 6-prenylpinocembrin and desmoxyphyllin A isolated from the whole plants of P. hookeri against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus using broth microdilution assay with ciprofloxacin as a positive control. The flavonoids exhibited activities against the tested pathogens with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 4.0 µg/mL to 64.0 µg/mL (Dzoyem et al. 2018). These antibacterial properties exhibited by the crude extracts of P. hookeri and flavonoids isolated from the species support the traditional uses of the species against gastro-intestinal problems (Asiimwe et al. 2013; Gelfand et al. 1985; Gumede 2021; Gumisiriza et al. 2019; Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. 2014; Kigen et al. 2016; Lye et al. 2008), respiratory problems (Asiimwe et al. 2013; Auerbach et al. 2012; Gumede 2021; Koné et al. 2004, 2005, 2007; Namukobe et al. 2011), syphilis (Ssegawa & Kasenene 2007b) and wounds (Auerbach et al. 2012).
Antifungal activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Asiimwe (2015) evaluated the antifungal activities of ethanol extract of P. hookeri leaves against Candida albicans (ATCC 10231) using agar diffusion assay with nystatin as a positive control. The extract exhibited activities against the tested pathogen with zone of inhibition of 8.0 mm (Asiimwe 2015). These preliminary ethnopharmacological findings corroborate the traditional use of leaf or root decoctions of P. hookeri against skin problems such as purulent rashes (Ngezahayo et al. 2015), ringworm (Lye et al. 2008; Ngezahayo et al. 2015; Tabuti et al. 2003) and scabies (Lye et al. 2008).
Antidiabetic activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Kahou et al. (2016) evaluated the antidiabetic activities of aqueous extract of P. hookeri leaves on haemoglobin glycation in diabetic Wistar rats. The extract administered orally at doses of 1000.0 mg/kg bw and 1200.0 mg/kg bw for 28 days caused a decrease in blood glucose, triglycerides and serum total cholesterol levels in diabetic rats (Kahou et al. 2016). Similarly, Tchamgoue et al. (2016) evaluated the insulin secretory activities of the flavonoids pseudarflavones A, 6,7-(2”,2”-dimethylchromano) flavanone, gancaonin P, boeravinone L, dorsamin F, dorsmanin I, 6-prenyl-30 -methoxyeriodictyol and orobol isolated from P. hookeri whole plants on isolated in vitro mice islets. The flavonoids exhibited mild to moderate insulin secretory activities (Tchamgoue et al. 2016). The antidiabetic and insulin secretory activities exhibited by the P. hookeri crude extracts and flavonoids isolated from the species support the traditional use of leaf decoctions as remedies for diabetes (Kahou et al. 2016).
Antioxidant activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Asiimwe (2015) evaluated the antioxidant activities of ethanol extract of P. hookeri leaves against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay. The extract exhibited weak antioxidant activities of 43.7% (Asiimwe 2015). A species exhibiting antioxidant activities has the capacity to protect human body cells from harmful damage caused by free radicals.
Antiplasmodial activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Clarkson et al. (2004) evaluated the antiplasmodial activities of dichloromethane and methanol (1:1) extracts of P. hookeri leaves against chloroquine-sensitive strain (D10) of Plasmodium falciparum using the parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay with chloroquine diphosphate as a positive control. The extract exhibited activities with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 100.0 µg/mL (Clarkson et al. 2004). Tchamgoue et al. (2022) evaluated the in vivo antiplasmodial activities of ethanol extract of P. hookeri leaves and the flavonoids quercetin, 7-O-benzyl-6-prenylpinocembrin and 6,8-diprenyleriodictyol isolated from the species against male Swiss albino mice infected with Plasmodium berghei. The ethanol extract exhibited activities causing 32.5% suppression at 500.0 mg/kg bw and prolonged the survival period of infected mice while similar activities were also exhibited by the flavonoids quercetin, 7-O-benzyl-6-prenylpinocembrin and 6,8-diprenyleriodictyol (Tchamgoue et al. 2022). Pseudarthria hookeri leaves are widely used as herbal medicines for malaria in Uganda (Anywar et al. 2016; Katuura et al. 2007; Lye et al. 2008; Ssegawa & Kasenene 2007a; Stangeland et al. 2011) and the documented antiplasmodial activities exhibited by both the crude extracts and flavonoids isolated from the species would contribute to the search for phytochemical compounds that could be used in the development of antimalarial drugs.
Antiproliferative activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Dzoyem et al. (2018) evaluated the antiproliferative activities of the flavonoids pseudarflavone A, 6,7-(2″,2″-dimethylchromano) flavanone, 6-prenylpinocembrin, boeravinone L, desmoxyphyllin A and 7-benzyloxy-6-prenylpinocembrin isolated from the whole plants of P. hookeri against the human T-Cell leukaemia cells Jurkat cancer cells using (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) colorimetric assay with doxorubicin as a positive control. The flavonoids showed activities exhibiting IC50 values ranging from 3.6 µg/mL to 10.0 µg/mL (Dzoyem et al. 2018). The antiproliferative activities exhibited by the flavonoids isolated from P. hookeri corroborate the traditional uses of the species as remedy for breast cancer (Kudamba et al. 2023).
Antischistosomal activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Sparg, Van Staden and Jäger (2000) assessed the antischistosomal activities of aqueous extracts of P. hookeri leaves against the schistosomula of Schistosoma haematobium with praziquantel as a positive control. The extract exhibited activities by killing 67.7% of the schistosomula worms at a concentration of 50.0 mg/mL after 12 to 24 h of exposure (Sparg et al. 2000). These results support the traditional uses of leaf and root decoctions of P. hookeri as remedy for bilharzia in Zimbabwe (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Oestrogenic activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Vollmer and Njamen (2007) and Njamen et al. (2008) evaluated in vitro and in vivo oestrogenic activities of methanol extracts of P. hookeri roots. The in vitro and in vivo oestrogenic activities were screened using the yeast estrogen receptor assay, ovariectomised Wistar rats and alkaline phosphatase induction assay on Ishikawa cells. The extracts exhibited oestrogenic activities showing stimulating effects (Njamen et al. 2008; Vollmer & Njamen 2007). These preliminary results can be used as baseline data for further oestrogenic studies considering the fact that P. hookeri is used against female reproductive problems such as infertility (Lye et al. 2008), menstrual problems (Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. 2007; Lye et al. 2008), prolapsed uterus (Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. 2007; Lye et al. 2008), inducing labour (Lye et al. 2008; Tabuti et al. 2003) and retained placenta (Lye et al. 2008; Tabuti et al. 2003).
Larvicidal activity of Pseudarthria hookeri
Koné et al. (2005) evaluated the larvicidal activities of ethanol extracts of P. hookeri leaves and roots against Haemonchus contortus using fenbendazole and ivermectin as positive controls. Both extracts showed activities exhibiting an absolute lethal concentration (LC100) value of 0.8 mg/mL (Koné et al. 2005). Therefore, this species has potential to be used in the treatment of intestinal helminthosis.
Conclusion
The present review provides a summary of the botany, medicinal uses, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of P. hookeri. Because the species is used as traditional medicine in 29.4% of the countries where it is indigenous, there is need for detailed ethnopharmacological research focussing on assessing safety, mechanisms of action in vivo and clinical research aimed at corroborating the traditional medical applications of the species. As the active ingredients of P. hookeri vary depending on the plant parts and origin of the specimen, phytochemical profiling protocols of the species should be standardised. Based on ethnopharmacological research done so far on P. hookeri, it seems the species has potential as a source of health and pharmaceutical products.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Author’s contributions
A.M. declares that they are the sole author of this research article.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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